Effects of habitat fragmentation on herpetofauna in Southeast Asia

Abstract

Habitat loss and fragmentation are undoubtedly significant drivers of biodiversity loss worldwide, with Southeast Asia being a hotspot of biodiversity and facing numerous anthropogenic pressures. However, the impacts of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity are still not fully understood, and further research is required to determine the responses of different taxa to this threat. Reptiles and amphibians (herpetofauna), in particular, are among the most threatened groups globally, with Southeast Asia being home to a high diversity of species and facing imminent threats from habitat loss and fragmentation. By combining bibliographic analyses and macroecological methods, this thesis aims to contribute to the knowledge on the current global state of habitat fragmentation research in herpetofauna and the broad and fine scale responses of Southeast Asian reptiles to various forms of habitat fragmentation. <br /> Chapter 1: This chapter provides a general introduction to the concepts of habitat fragmentation and its effects on biodiversity. It accentuates the importance of Southeast Asia for habitat fragmentation research due to its complex geological history, high species richness, and rapid habitat loss. It also describes the plight of the Southeast Asian herpetofauna, focussing on their vulnerability to habitat loss and fragmentation in freshwater environments. Lastly, the chapter gives a brief overview of the methodologies and approaches used throughout this thesis. <br /> Chapter 2: Recent decades have seen a surge of funding, published papers and citations in the field as threats to biodiversity continue to rise. However, how research directions and agenda are evolving in this field remains poorly understood. This chapter presents a global review of past and current state of research on habitat fragmentation for reptiles and amphibians. Here, I systematically reviewed published literatures on habitat fragmentation effects on reptiles and amphibians from 1990 to 2020, with the aims of identifying geographical and taxonomical trends on the various forms of habitat fragmentation, and the sampling methods and response variables commonly employed to identify them. The study reveals several patterns and biases in research efforts, such as the concentration of studies in wealthy and English-speaking countries, and the under-representation of certain regions (e.g. Africa and Southeast Asia) and taxa (e.g. caecilians, fossorial reptiles). It specifically calls for increased attention to these taxa in Southeast Asia, which have received less scientific scrutiny compared to other regions of the world. Moreover, there is a shift in research agendas towards studies utilising technological advancements including genetic and spatial data analyses. These findings suggest important associations between sampling methods and prevalent response variables but not with the forms of habitat fragmentation. This review suggests the need for more studies on genetic and spatial patterns, with emphasis on underrepresented reptile and amphibian taxa. This chapter sets the context for the subsequent chapters by highlighting the existing gaps in the field. <br /> Chapter 3: This chapter uses species distribution models to investigate the broad-scale responses of threatened semi-aquatic or freshwater reptiles to current and future climatic and anthropogenic conditions. More specifically, it examines the habitat suitability of endangered freshwater crocodiles and turtles and assesses the effectiveness of existing protected areas in conserving these species across Southeast and South Asia (in the Indomalayan realm). Species distribution models are highly successful in predicting potentially suitable habitats of a species based on their environmental niche and presence records. The results suggest that protected areas may be insufficient in the face of current anthropogenic pressures and future climate change. The chapter emphasises the importance of considering both climatic and non-climatic factors in species distribution models. The results of this chapter are essential for conservation planning and management, as they provide insights into important areas and reserves that should be prioritised. <br /> Chapter 4: This chapter zooms in from a broad-scale to fine-scale view of species response to habitat change, focusing on the effect of logging, which affects more than half of the remaining tropical forests in Southeast Asia. Logging has direct and indirect impacts on freshwater turtle habitats, such as altering stream hydrology and increasing sedimentation. In this chapter, I examine the fine-scale responses of two freshwater turtle species to Reduced Impact Logging, a sustainable forestry method, in Deramakot reserve in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. I use occupancy models to estimate the probability of species detectability and habitat associations across a post-harvest recovery gradient (1 –21 years since logging), using presence and absence data. Results for the non-threatened soft-shelled turtle, Dogania subplana are inconclusive. However, the study reveals a significant negative association between monthly rainfall and detection of the threatened hard-shelled turtle, Notochelys platynota. The occupancy probability of N. platynota is positively associated with greater distance from logging roads. Nevertheless, both species appear to be relatively common throughout the reserve. The chapter suggests that forests managed sustainably, i.e. using Reduced Impact Logging could serve as conservation areas for imperilled freshwater turtle species in the region. <br /> Lastly, chapter 5 summarises the results of this thesis and its implications and contributions to the field. It also considers the limitations of the approaches and methodologies used. Overall, this thesis emphasises the urgent need for more research on the effects of habitat fragmentation on herpetofauna in in Southeast Asia and the importance of incorporating both broad and fine-scale data. This work is a significant step towards providing easily reproducible studies to be used as baseline to ensure the long-term survival of these vulnerable species in Southeast Asia.