Higher education in India

Abstract

India’s higher-education system has expanded dramatically since Independence, yet enrol-ment gains remain modest and uneven. Drawing on the All India Survey of Higher Education 2021–22 and Union-State budget data, this paper interrogates the policy emphasis on Insti-tutes of National Importance (INIs) and its repercussions for equity and national innovation. It finds that IITs, NITs and IIMs collectively absorb 18.2% of the higher-education budget while enrolling less than 0.76% of students; per-capita public expenditure on an INI student exceeds the national average by a factor of eighteen. Conversely, state universities, which host two-thirds of learners, operate under acute fiscal constraints that depress infrastructure qual-ity, faculty strength and research output. The analysis shows that India’s total R&D spend—0.64% of GDP—lags global comparators and is channelled largely to defence and space agen-cies, leaving universities with under 9% of funds. Historical and institutional review reveals how colonial precedents, post-independence technocracy and coalition-era provincial lobbying entrenched an elite-centric model. The paper argues that without a deliberate redistribution of central grants and ring-fenced centre-to-state transfers for public universities, India cannot achieve a higher Gross Enrolment Ratio, inclusive growth or a broad-based research ecosys-tem.