Off-farm employment, gender, and nutrition in rural Africa

Abstract

How do rural households in Africa diversify their income sources, and what are the implications of off-farm employment for welfare? This dissertation attempts to answer these questions by presenting four essays focusing on the roles of farm and off-farm income, women's participation in off-farm employment, and agricultural technologies. Using data from five different African countries and various econometric modeling approaches, the essays provide evidence on the composition of household income, how women's off-farm employment influences household and individual dietary quality, and how agricultural technologies influence gendered off-farm employment in rural Africa. <br/> The first essay investigates the role of various income sources for households using survey data from four African countries—Kenya, Namibia, Tanzania and Zambia. We find that off-farm sources, including wage employment, self-employment, remittances, and transfers, account for 60% of total household income. The second essay examines how women's participation in off-farm employment influences household consumption patterns, with a particular focus on calorie and micronutrient intake. Using detailed panel data from Malawi, we find that women's participation in off-farm work, especially in self-employment and wage employment, is positively associated with household consumption of calories and key micronutrients, including vitamin A, iron, and zinc. The third essay uses cross-section survey data from Tanzania and Zambia and reveals that women's participation in off-farm work is associated with an improvement in their dietary quality in terms of food groups consumed. <br/> The fourth essay analyzes the association between the adoption of complementary agricultural technologies and gendered participation in off-farm employment. Using nationally representative household survey panel data from Tanzania, the essay provides new evidence that adopting improved seeds, inorganic fertilizers, and mechanized land preparation is associated with an increase in household self-employment, especially among women, while men tend to shift toward wage employment, suggesting gender-specific off-farm labor responses. <br/> The evidence from this dissertation underscores the important role of off-farm jobs for rural development in Africa. We conclude that there is need for design of policies that are gender-sensitive promoting access to profitable businesses and expanding rural job opportunities that are lucrative and formal. Such policies are key for achieving various development goals, including poverty reduction, nutrition improvements, and women's empowerment.